Kerala and Malayalam Language

A Conspectus

Location

Kerala lies between 817’30” and 1247’40” north latitudes and 7451’ and 7724’47” east longitudes. It stretches for about 580 kms. along the Malabar Coast with its width varying from 32 kms. in the north and south to over 120 kms in the middle. It is separated from the rest of the Indian peninsula by the Western Ghats. It has an area of 38,863 sq. kms., that is 1.27 per cent of the total land area of India. It is bordered by the states of Karnataka on the north, Tamil Nadu on the east and the south and the Arabian Sea to the west. Geographically Kerala has three regions: the costal areas on the west are lowland, the plains are in the midland and the eastern highland consists mostly of hills.

History

The ancient history of Kerala is mired in mythologies and legends. The most famous of the stories is that of Parasurama, an incarnation of Vishnu. According to this legend, Kerala was created by Parasurama from the sea. The story, however, has a grain of truth in that some of the coastal areas of Kerala are not that old and emerged out on the receding of sea during the last two millennia. The oldest historical record about Kerala is in a rock edict by emperor Ashoka in the third century B.C. Kerala finds mention in the Aitareya Aranyaka and in the writings of ancient Greek and Roman authors such as Megasthenes, Pliny, Ptolemy and the unknown author of Periplus of the Eritryean Sea. Microlithic artefacts of 4000 B.C have been unearthed from the north of Kerala.  Megalithic monuments such as burial stones and urns of Later Stone Age have been dug out from various parts of the state leading to the conclusion that Kerala had Neolithic settlements, although of a period later than that of in most other parts of Asia. There is no definiteness about the earliest settlers; opinions vary as to whether they were of Negroid or Proto-Australian stock. The Dravidians from Mediterranean regions seem to have settled in Kerala one or two millennia before Christ whereas the Aryan migration from the north perhaps occurred during the second or first century  B.C. 

The historical period of Kerala starts a little before the Christian era. There had been extensive trade links between Kerala and Phoenicians, Romans and Greeks in the West and the Chinese in the east. The port of Ophir, from which King Solomon imported teak, peacock feathers and ivory as per the Old Testament, is believed to have been on the Kerala coast. Roman coins of various periods upto that of Justinian I have been recovered from different parts of Kerala. Muziris (near Kodungallur) is famed as a great port in the ancient world. The main items exported from here were various kinds of spices such as pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger and so on. The size of the trade can be gauged from Pliny’s lament over the drain on the Roman treasury on account of the imports of spices. The trade between Kerala and the West increased in volume after the discovery of the monsoon winds by Hippalus.

In the Sangam period, during the early centuries of the Christian era, Kerala was part of Tamizhakam comprising the present day Kerala, Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The great work of the Sangam era, Chilapathikaram is adduced to a Kerala poet, Ilanko Adikal.  Kerala in those times was known as the Chera Kingdom.  The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas were the three dynasties of the Tamils. The capital of the Cheras was Vanchi near Muziris. In the 10^th century or so, Mahodayapuram or Makkotapuram became the capital.  Although later royal houses of Kerala claim descent from the Cheras, the Chera Kingdom as a distinct identity seemed to have come to an end in the 12^th century. The Chera period is interspersed with legends about the rule of the Perumakkals, each of whom ruled for a specific period, viz., twelve years. According to folklore the last of Perumals, the Cheraman Perumal, divided the land among his heirs and left for Arabia.

Except for the internecine wars among the three Tamil dynasties and occasional attacks by outsiders like the Kadambas in the fifth century, the main events of the Chera period are the visits by a number of foreign travellers whose writings give fragmentary glimpses of life in Kerala.  Foreign trade was the major revenue earner for the government. Trade also seemed to have given rise to small colonies of Jews and Syrian Christians, and later Arabs, around the port cities.  A number of ports on the Malabar Coast are mentioned by travellers.  The most famous of them was Muziris. Consequent on a big flood in 1341 this ancient port was heavily silted and was abandoned. Its place was taken over by Kochi, a little to the south of Muziris. Idyllic pictures of life of the times are found in the literary works while in the writings of travellers trade related activities take pride of place.

After the Chera period, Kerala entered a phase of feudalism with a number of local chieftains (naduvazhis) exercising power in different parts. The important feudatory lords were of Kolathunad, Purakizhnad, Kurumpanad, Eranad, Valluvanad, Kizhmalainad, Vempalinad and Venad. This came to an end with the rise of the three kingdoms of Travancore or Venad in the south, Kochi in the middle and Zamorins of Kozhikkod in the north during the period between 14^th to 18^th centuries. 

The landing of Vasco de Gama near Kozhikkod in 1498 can be considered as the starting point of Kerala’s modern history. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch and finally the British. The attacks of Tipu Sultan in the 18^th century led to the decline of the Zamorins. Malabar was annexed by the British after defeating Tipu Sultan and the Zamorin was pensioned off. Travancore and Kochi accepted the suzerainty of the British and remained as princely states till India became independent. The British period witnessed many agitations for democratic and civil rights by the people of the princely states and freedom struggle in the Malabar province. The Mappila rebellion in Malabar and the struggle for responsible government and the non-cooperation movement in Travancore are important. Congress and Communist parties also came into existence during the 20^th century. It was people’s agitation lead by the Travancore State Congress that compelled the Travancore king to join the Indian Union on attainment of independence from the British.

After Independence, the two kingdoms of Travancore and Kochi were merged into the state of Thirukochi (Travancore-Cochin). In 1956 all the Malayalam speaking areas in the mainland was merged and the state of Kerala was formed. Since then democratically elected governments lead either by the Communists or the Congress have been in power in the state.

Administrative Divisions

Kerala is presently divided into 14 districts. They are, from the north to the south: Kasargod, Kannur, Wayanad. Kozhikkod, Malappuram, Palakkad, Thrissur, Ernakulam, Idukki, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram. The capital of the state is Thiruvanathapuram. As per the 2001 Census the population of Kerala is 31.84 million.

Social Development

The state has made tremendous progress in the fields of education and other social indicators such as health care, infant mortality and so on. Kerala is a hundred per cent literate state for more than a decade and its social development index is on par with that of developed countries.

Nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw positive social re-engineering in the state consequent on a number of social movements.  Under the leadership of Sri Narayana Guru, the Ezhava community and Ayyankali the Dalits challenged the then existing social norms. The Vaikom Satyagraha of the 1930s resulted in the untouchables and other backward communities of Hindus in Travancore getting the right of entering the temples. The Nair community made tremendous progress under the leadership of Mannathu Padmanabhan in the educational and social fields.  There have been movements among the orthodox Nampoothiri community also leading to widow re-marriage and other social reforms. Education has made great impact on the Christians who became an economic force in Kerala since Independence. Job opportunities in the Gulf have helped the Muslim community also to get on the train of progress.

Culture and Religion

The peculiar geographical location of Kerala has resulted in the formation of a distinctive culture. It is a blend of the Aryan north and the Dravidian south. This has been embellished with elements from other parts of the world because of the extensive trade relations that Kerala had. Kerala has a unique settlement pattern of isolated independent houses. Marumakkathayam or matrilineal system of inheritance (among Nairs and certain other communities) and sambhandham, a kind of unattached marital relationship between  a Nampoothiri man and a Nair woman, are peculiar to Kerala. However, this system has almost become extinct along with the joint family system during the 20^th century. Kerala has its own traditions in visual and performing arts such as Koothu, Koodiyattam, Mohiniyattam, Ottan Thullal, Kathakali, Chavittunatakam and martial arts like Kalari Payattu.

Kerala had a vibrant history in science and philosophy. In the fields of astronomy, mathematics, Ayurveda, philosophy and literature Kerala had contributed significantly.  One of the early solar calendars was the Malayalam calendar known also as Kollam Era starting from A.D. 825.

Ancient Keralites were following Dravidian religious practices which were mostly animistic and egalitarian. Later, organised religions from the north such as Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism entered Kerala a few centuries before Christ. Initially Jainism and later Buddhism held sway in Kerala, but with revival of Hinduism under the leadership of Adi Shankara, a great Hindu sage and philosopher who was born in Kalady in Kerala but travelled through out India, in the eighth and ninth centuries, these religions started declining and almost disappeared from the scene by the 15^th century. The ascent of Brahmanical Hinduism brought in its wake social divisions like castes and sub-castes. Christianity and Islam are believed to have come to Kerala in the initial years of their founding. Christians of Kerala, who go by the name Nazranis, believe that their faith was founded by Saint Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ,  in the first century. The small Christian community later got strengthened with the immigration of large number from Syria in the fourth century. During the colonial period the number of Christians increased by conversions especially from the socially and economically backward sections. Islam came to Kerala in the 8^th century with the Arab traders and became a predominant section of Kerala society over the centuries. According to tradition, a large group of Jews migrated to Kerala in the first century and settled in Kodungalloor and later in Kochi. After the establishment of Israel most of them migrated to that country.

Hinduism now account for 57 per cent of Kerala’s population while Islam for 23 per cent and Christianity for 19 per cent. The remaining are made up of diverse other faiths and even non-believers.

Language

Malayalam is the predominant language of Kerala. It is also the language of Lakshadweep, a group of islands to the west of Kerala. Malayalam belongs to the Dravidian family of languages. Other important languages of this family are Tamil, Telugu and Kannada of which Malayalam is the youngest. Along with Tamil, Irula, Toda, Kota, Kodagu, Badaga, Kannada and Tulu, it belongs to the southern branch of Dravidian languages. Proto Tamil-Malayalam, the common stock of Tamil and Malayalam apparently disintegrated over a period of four or five centuries from the 9th century onwards resulting in the emergence of Malayalam as a language distinct from Tamil. The earliest written record of Malayalam is the Vazhappalli Sasnam (inscription) of around A.D. 830.  The literature of the 9^th to 15^th centuries reflect a language which now appear a mixture of Tamil and Malayalam. Even this literature mostly consisted of folk songs. Ramacharitam of the 12^th century is considered as the first major Malayalam literary work. In the centuries that followed Malayalam literature grew in size and grandeur and is now one of the leading literatures of India.

Kerala can be roughly divided into three distinct dialectical regions.  The southern dialect shows great Tamil influence and is spoken mostly in the Thiruvananthapuram district.  The northern dialect in which the prevalence of Kannada is quite high is spoken mostly in Kasargod and Kannur districts. The other parts of the state can be considered as falling in the middle dialect region although there are still regional variations in intonation patterns, vocabulary and distribution of grammatical and phonological elements. Linguisticians, however, identify twelve distinct dialect areas for Malayalam. The influence of Sanskrit on the evolution of Malayalam language is evident in the number of Sanskrit words used in Malayalam today. Besides, the trade relations that Kerala had with different parts of the world have resulted in the Arabs, the Persians, the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Chinese, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English influencing the language by adding to the vocabulary. Of late Hindi has also become a contributor to the Malayalam vocabulary.

Kerala had a distinct script from very early times. The oldest known one is the vattezhuthu (round writing). The influence of Sanskrit and Granta script on Vattezhuthu resulted by the 16-17th centuries in the emergence of the Arya Ezhuthu popularised by Ezhuthachan.  The modern Malayalam script is a resultant of this modified Granta or Arya Ezhuthu. Malayalam now consists of 53 letters including 20 long and short vowels and the rest consonants. The earlier style of writing is now substituted with a new style from 1981. This new script reduces the different letters for typeset from 900 to less than 90.  This was mainly done to accommodate Malayalam in the keyboards of typewriters and computers.

Reference Books

1. Kerala Sahitya Charithram (5 volumes) (1953) (Malayalam) by Ulloor S. Parameswara Aiyer, Department of Publications, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,1990.

2. Kerala Charitram (Malayalam) (1967) by A. Sreedhara Menon, Sahitya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, Kottayam, 1983.

3. Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction (1978) by A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications Private Ltd., Kochi, 1978.

4. History of Kerala (4 volumes)  (1924) by K. P. Padmanabha Menon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1998.

5. Malabar (2 volumes) (1887) by William Logan, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1995.

6. People of India Volume XXVII Kerala (2002), Anthropological Survey of India and Affiliated East West Press Private Limited, New Delhi, 2002.

7. Dravidian Encyclopedia (3 volumes) (1997), The International School of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997.

James Thanickan October 23. 2003. Kerala

The Coonan Cross Oath: The First Popular Uprising Against European Colonialism in India

T. C..James

Colonialism manifested in India in different forms in political, economic and religious sectors. In all spheres it evoked antipathy and aversion among Indians from its very beginning.  The political and economic colonialism and the struggle against it attracted enough attention of scholars and lay people alike, but the colonialism in the sphere of religion and the fight against it has gone largely unnoticed.  This was probably because the number of people affected was small.  Another reason could be that colonialism in religion was practised mainly by the Portuguese who received very little attention in the Indian historical firmament, which was almost wholly dominated by the British.

European colonialism in the sphere of religion started with the arrival of the Portuguese, the first European power to come to India, at Kozhikode, Kerala.  The description “gun in one hand and cross in the other” fitted the Portuguese.  They were Roman Catholics of the Latin rite and they made Latinisation of the Indian church one of their main objectives in the field of religion.

Christianity in India had a much longer history than in Portugal.  According to tradition prevalent in Kerala, Christianity arrived in India in the first century A.D. itself.  The Syrian Christians of Kerala believe that St. Thomas, one of the twelve Apostles (disciples) of Christ, came to India (Cranganore or Kodungalloor on the west coast) in A.D. 52, that he baptized a large number of Indians, that he established seven churches in different parts of Kerala, and that he became a martyr at Mylapore on the east coast in A.D.73. There are no historical documents in support of this tradition.  But it is strongly held and believed in by the Christians of Kerala.

Indian Christianity was closely allied with the Syrian Church, their bishops came from Syria; and their ecclesiastical language (the language in which church services are performed) was Syriac.  There were occasional immigrations of Christians from Syria, too.  Thus it had regular interaction with Christians in Syria.  Their relationship remained without much friction probably because the bishops from Syria did not interfere in the social and cultural life of the Christians who in these matters were indistinguishable from their Hindu neighbours.  A local priest was the head of the community.  He was known as ‘Jathiku Karthaviyan’ (Archdeacon).  All temporal powers were vested in him and the bishop’s domain was the spiritual.

The advent of the Portuguese disturbed this serene landscape.  The Portuguese were practitioners of Western Christianity.  Their church language was Latin and Pope was the head of the church.  The Middle Ages had regimentalised the rituals and practices; and anything different from those rituals was apostasy and heresy. To the Portuguese the Indian ways and customs and the Eastern practices of the Christians here were anathema.

Initially, the Portuguese and Indian Christians had a friendly relationship. The Christians here were naturally happy to welcome a Christian power.  They might have been watching with jealousy the close relationship of the Muslims and the Arabs.  So when people professing their own faith came from the West they were overjoyed and received them with gifts and presents. They even surrendered the crown and sceptre of the last Christian king of Kerala, as per legends, which they had preserved, to the Portuguese. 

This bonhomie did not last long.  The Portuguese could not reconcile with an ‘alien culture’.  There were differences also on account of differing perceptions on faith and evangelisation.  It must be remembered that the Portuguese got the East and the Spanish the West by the infamous division of the world between these two countries ordained by Pope Celextus III through his Bull Inter Caetera of 13^th March, 1455.  Both these powers proceeded to conquer and colonise    their respective hemispheres.  Conversion of the local people to Christianity, which was not always by fair means, was one of their objectives.  This was in sharp contrast to the approach of the Indian Christians who, in the true Indian way, was not enamoured of just increasing their numbers.

To the Portuguese the Christians here were not ‘real’ Christians.  They were dubbed as Nestorians.  They considered it their bounden duty to ‘purify’ the Indian Christians of their Nestorianism.  In the words of Cardinal Tisserant: -

The Portuguese did not tolerate very long the fact that the Christians of the Indus followed usages different from their own …Hence they launched a wholesome campaign of Latinisation, [Eastern Christianity in India, p.174].

The Portuguese, initially, had neither Episcopal nor temporal power over the Syrian Christians.  Consequent on the signing of a pact between the Pope and the King of Portugal, in 1514, the Padroado came into existence under which the King of Portugal got powers to appoint bishops in the areas under his control, of course, in consultation with the Holy See.  Under the guise of the Padroado the Portuguese started interfering in the affairs of the Kerala church.

The Portuguese realized very early that they would not get suzerainty over the Kerala Christians so long as the Syrian bishops continued to come.  Hence their first targets were the Syrian bishops.  They put all sorts of hindrances in the way of these bishops.  They saw to it that new bishops from Syria did not reach the Indian coast.  Since the Portuguese were quite powerful on the sea, they generally succeeded in this.  (The other sea power in the Indian Ocean was the Arabs who had no love lost with the Syrian Christians).  It still speaks of the courage and commitment of the Syrian bishops that some of them managed to reach Kerala after facing untold hardships on land and sea.

The Portuguese were, perhaps, the first to use that perennial colonial strategy, of ‘divide and rule’.  The people converted by the western missionaries were kept as a separate entity and not allowed to join the Christian community already existing in this country.  Separate churches were erected for them; separate bishops and priests were provided to them; and they were to follow the Latin rite only.  The principle of ‘one bishop one territory’ was thus thrown to the winds.

The final onslaught was frontal.  After the death of Mar Abraham, the bishop from Syria who was persecuted in many ways by the Portuguese, in 1597, Archbishop Alexis Menezis of Goa assumed (illegally) full powers over the Syrian Christians of Kerala.  Archbishop Menezis was the counterpart of Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor in India, in religious matters.  He was as rigid and cruel as the military man.  Stephen Neil says,

Menezis had no doubt at all as to what was to happen, all Christians in India must come under his jurisdiction, all must adopt the Roman orthodoxy of the sixteenth century, as defined in the Council of Trent (1562) and there must be no nonsense about any independence (History of Christian Mission, p. 146).

He believed that “a good administrator ought to replace Syriac by Latin.”  Towards this end he convened a local synod at Udayamperur (Diamper), near Kochi, in 1599.  Even according to the Latin Canon this was an invalid synod.  In the synod Archbishop Menezis rode rough shod over the local priests and laity and declared as passed the resolutions prepared in advance by him.

The decisions, so passed in the synod, were unabashedly aimed at latinising the Kerala Church liturgically, ecclesiastically and culturally.  Liturgically, it removed from the texts all references to eastern saints; it changed the liturgical calendar and axed anything that was found inimical to the Roman Church.  Ecclesiastically it introduced the Roman hierarchical structures in which all powers were concentrated in the hands of the bishop. The greatest damage was done in the field of culture.  As mentioned above the Christians in Kerala were culturally one with their brethren in other religions.  The synod prohibited a number of customs and practices, which were common to Christians and others.  It banned many of the Indian rituals and cultural practices, which the Portuguese could not stomach.  The whole attempt was aimed at   europeanising the Christians of Kerala who were Indians through and through.

The decisions, especially the areas affecting their daily life, were not liked by the Christians.  The resistance to these changes started immediately.  One can say that the fight against colonialism started with the synod of Diamper.  To quote Tisserant again,

Writing in 1604, Bishop Francis Roz gave an account of how part of the population of Cranganore had fled to the hills, the Ghats, in order to escape the Latin missionaries who compelled them to eat fish on fast days contrary to their discipline, forbade them to begin Lent before Ash-Wednesday and prevented the Kathanars (local priests) from using leavened bread at Mass (op.cit., p.178)

The Christians realized that their weakness lay in having a bishop not of their liking i.e. of their rite.  As already mentioned, they were getting their bishops earlier from Syria till the Portuguese created problems.  Now, they started fresh efforts to get a bishop from Syria, who would be of their rite and who would respect their customs and traditions.  They had approached the Patriarchs of Antioch, Selucia-Czeziphone and even the Nestorian Patriarch of Babylon for this.

While they were eagerly awaiting the arrival of a bishop from Syria or Mesopotamia word reached that one Mar Ahtallah reached Kalamina (Mylapore, near Madras). (The honorific ‘Mar’ means reverend or saint and is used by bishops in Eastern Churches.)  He claimed that he was sent by the Patriarch of the East.  He sent a message to the Christians in Kerala that he was imprisoned by the Portuguese, that he would very soon be taken to the Inquisition in Goa and that they should try to save him when the ship would reach Kochi.

The Christians went in number to Kochi when the ship carrying Mar Ahtallah docked there. The Portuguese captain of the ship did not allow the Christians to meet Mar Ahtallah and surreptitiously sailed off.  This both angered and saddened the people.  They assembled in the church at Mattancherry, (part of present day Kochi) and for the first time in India raised the banner of revolt against European colonialism.  They decided to declare their independence from the Europeans in the matter of religion.  Since the number of people assembled was so large and all could neither be accommodated inside the church nor touch the stone cross in the courtyard while taking the oath, they tied a rope to the cross and holding on to that rope took the famous ‘Coonan Cross Oath.’ (It is said that the cross got the name which means ‘cross with a bend’ because people tied a rope to the cross so that every one could touch the rope for taking the oath and the pull on the rope caused the bend on the cross.)

The people took a solemn pledge to the effect that they reject the European Archbishop (Francis Garcia) imposed on them and vowing that they would never in future accept the ‘Paulinists.’  This was on 3^rd January, 1653.

This was the first formal declaration of independence from European colonialism anywhere in India.  Even though it related to matters of religion it asserted the right of self-determination.  It was an oath to throw off the yoke of imperialism.

This great revolt did not stop with the oath. It was followed by concrete action.  The faithful reassembled at Angamaly (near Kochi).  May be for the first time in the history of the Church after the apostolic times, a bishop was elected – neither appointed nor nominated.  Even the consecration of the bishop was in a ‘democratic and progressive’ way.  Twelve Kattanars (local Christian priests) laid their hands on his head and declared him bishop. The Christians of Kerala, thus, for the first time in their long history, got a native bishop. He was Thomas the Archdeacon who assumed the title of Mar Thomas.  The first popular uprising against European colonialism thus culminated in the installation of a native bishop.

*****

Onam

Onam is the most popular festival of Kerala. It is celebrated by all communities, though the level of celebration is more among Hindus than among Christians and Muslims. From 1961 it is celebrated as state festival by Government of Kerala.  

Malayalees fondly and reverentially refer to the festival as Thiru Onam (holy Onam). It is celebrated in Chingam, the first month of Malayalam calendar. Chingam corresponds to mid August to mid September.  Astrologically it is the time sun is in the zodiac sign Leo. The word Chingam is a vernacularisation of the Sanskrit word Simha which means lion or Leo. Onam is the Malayalam form of Sravana, i.e.  Aquila the 22^nd lunar asterism.

History of the festival is shrouded in mystery. As with any festival or ritual there is a mythological story ascribed to Onam too. The story runs thus: There was an Asura King, Maha Bali (the Great Bali) who was ruler of Kerala. He had an interesting genealogy. His grand father was Prahlad, the great Vishnu devotee whose father was Hiranyakasipu, a godless Asura who was killed by Vishnu through his incarnation as Narasimha. Though an Asura Maha Bali was a benevolent and popular ruler and his subjects loved him. One of the folk songs associated with Onam sings the glories of Maha Bali and his rule. During his reign every one was happy; people were good; no body cheated another. No bad characters any where. In fact it was a Utopian world. Maha Bali conquered the three worlds, the earth, the heavens (swarg, the upper world) and the Hades (pathal, the under world). He was so mighty that Indra (the chief of devas [gods]) and other gods got scared of him. They approached Maha Vishnu with the request to redeem their lost glory. In those days Maha Bali decided to do an yagya at Bhrigukatch on the banks of Narmada. Vishnu took the incarnation of a dwarfish Brahmin, Vamana and approached Maha Bali for bhiksha (alms). He requested that he be given land measuring three foot. Not heeding the advice of his guru Sukra, Maha Bali promised to give the land. Thereupon Vamana grew into the Virat Purush (the Great Being). His first step covered the entire earth and the second the entire heavens. Now he asked Maha Bali for the place to put his foot for the third step. Thereupon Maha Bali bowed to him and requested Vamana to place his holy foot on his head. With that Maha Bali was banished to the pathal world. Vamana however gave him a boon to visit his beloved people once every year. According to the story, Onam day in chingam is the day when Maha Bali visits his subjects, the Malayalees. Hence they celebrate Onam to welcome their beloved king.

Historians do not give any value to the mythical story. In fact as mythology it contradicts the other mythical story of Parasurama creating Kerala by recovering land from sea since Parasurama is a later incarnation.

It is, however, true that Onam celebration goes back to many centuries. Reference to Onam is found in the Portuguese version of the decrees of the synod of Udayamaperur (Diamper) held under the Portuguese auspices in 1599. In the poem Perumal Thirumozhi of 8-9^th century there is a reference to Onam celebration. Still earlier, in the poem Maturai Kanchi of the Sangam era there is vivid description of Onam festival of Maturai. Maturai Kanchi is an important poem in the Pattuppattu (Ten Poems). It is by Marutanar from Mankudi. The poem describes Onam Nannal (the good day of Onam). As per the poem the festival continued for seven days. It was in honour of Vishnu. There are elephant tournaments of Maravar community, ceremonial baths of mothers with infants as well as of young pregnant women and much music and drum beating.  Except for the linkage with Onam day and Vishnu (Mayon), the Maturai festival has nothing in common with modern day Onam. The absence of any mention of  Cera Kingdom, the ancient name of Kerala, in the description of Onam festival further raises the doubt that the Maturai Onam may be a different festival and not the one from which the present day Onam of Malayalees has evolved.   It is also worth noting that modern Tamils do not celebrate Onam.

There is also a view that Onam goes back to the new year festival of Assyria. The first scholar to propound this theory was the late N.V. Krishna Varier in 1954. The theory is based on a presumption that Malayalees originally came from ancient Assyria. There were many kings in Assyria whose names end in ‘Bal’. It is argued that Maha Bali was one of them. The logic is that Asuras were the people of Assyria. The argument linking the new year celebration of Assyria with Onam is further strengthened by the similarity of the images prepared for worship at Onam time (Onathappan) and those found in old Assyria (zigrai). Both lack any human shape and are pillar shaped. The theory is, however, mostly based on homonymous names in the mythical story and in ancient Assyria. Till further credible proofs emerge of the historical linkage of Kerala with Assyria, this theory has to b considered as mere conjecture.

Many scholars consider Onam as the harvest festival of Kerala. World over harvest festivals are celebrated by different communities. As with most things of social life, festivals too could be traced back to the times of hunter-gatherer period of history. Festivals are occasions for celebration and feasting. In the hunter gatherer society they might have occasioned by the killing of large preys that could be shared with many. It is rational to presume that when large preys were brought down that would have occasioned some kind of celebration, if not for anything but the sheer joy of the success of the hunting.

As humans moved from wandering existence to settlements and agriculture, festivals must have got associated with agrarian activities such as sowing and harvesting. Since harvest times are seasons of plenty and joy, harvest festivals would have slowly emerged as major occasions of celebration. Later with the growing clout of priests and people’s fears of the unknown, such festivals would have received the garb of religion. Mythologies might have evolved around them linking them with some gods. When a particular community adopted a new religion the new gods would have been reimposed on the old ones associated with the festival. This explains the incongruities one finds in the mythological stories about the origins of many festivals. For example Easter which originally was the festival of the goddess Aeoster later got rechristened as the festival of the resurrection of Jesus Christ after the Pagan population of Europe converted to Christianity. In the case of Onam too such a transformation can be seen. It is, however, unique festival in that it celebrates the defeated one, i.e. the Asura king Maha Bali instead of the hero Vamana. Onam festival fits in very well as a harvest festival. The season is the right one for a festival. The previous two months are times of heavy monsoon rains which really keep people indoors and poor people do not have any work. No work means no income and consequentially poverty. Those two months, Mithunam and Karkadakom, (in Malayalam era) are known as the scarcity months for this reason. With the new month and new year the season changes. Sunny days are there again. People get work. Harvesting takes place in many parts of Kerala. The times of scarcity are over. So people are in a mood to celebrate. That is when Onam in Chingam occurs. This theory gets added strength from the fact that there is more enthusiasm among Nairs and other communities associated with farming sector than among Brahmins.

People celebrate Onam with new clothes, presents, big feasts and games. Onam is in complete wihtout Onakodi (new cloth purchased for Onam). Farm workers and share croppers used to make presents of their best products, particularly bananas and vegetables, to their landlords who in turn would gift them onakodi.

The feasts are mostly vegetarian though in some parts of Kerala chicken curry is a must. The dishes are numerous. The most prominent ones are Parippu curry, Erissery, Kalan, Upperi, Olan, Inchipuli, and Aviyal. Sambhar has also now become an essential one. Number of dishes increases depending on the affordability of the family. Pappadam and at least a couple of payasams are a must. No feast is complete without banana. Traditionally the feast is taken on a plantain leaf.

In earlier times men used to engage in Pakida kali (a kind of dice game), Onathallu (a game in which two groups engage in slapping each other till one group admits defeat), Pulikali (a show where a person dressed as a tiger entertains people), thalapantu kali ( a ball game in which the ball is made of coconut leaves), kilithattu kali (popular in southern Kerala) and so on. Now card games have become very common. Women and girls mostly play on swings temporarily erected on branches of trees. Kaikottikali (a kind of folk dance) and singing are also very common among women. Now a days boat races are a prominent feature of Onam celebration in Kerala.

One of the most attractive aspects of Onam celebration is the Pookalams (floral designs) laid in front of houses. This starts ten days in advance and even now children in groups go round country sides every morning in search of flowers for floral designs. Phlomis flower is a must for these floral decorations.

Changing life styles change ways of celebration and Onam is no exception. It is now becoming more of an indoor festival except for the boat races than an outdoor one. However, Onam still remains as a season for family get together, particularly since large number of Malayalees move out of Kerala in search of employment.

Legends of Kadamattathu Kathanaar

            The legends of Kadamattathu Kathanaar are parts of the folk lore in Kerala. These are stories of the magical feats of a priest from Kadamattom, a place near Muvattupuzha in Ernakulam district. Such folk stories are a testimony for the indigenousness of the Christian community of Kerala and also show how integrated they are with the social and cultural fabric. It is only a community assured of its place and confident of its moorings that can indulge in such fanciful stories which reflect almost irrational beliefs and practices of the society around them. There is hardly anything Christian about magical practices. The historicity of the story is also doubtful. But they have value for throwing light into the society of a time.

            There is no uniformity among folklorists as to the period of the life of the priest. Some ascribe it to 6^th century while some to the 16^th- 17^th centuries.  Since in some stories there are references to the presence of Dutch and in some to the visit of a Patriarch from Jerusalem, it may be reasonable to take that the society described in the legends is that of 16^th-17^th centuries.  Kathanaar is old Malayalam for a local priest.

I

            As per the legends as compiled in the book Aitihamala by Kottarathil Shankunni the priest’s name was Paulos. He was born of a poor family and both his parents died when he was a young boy. The orphan was then adopted by the parish priest of Kadamattom who wanted him to become a priest to succeed him. One day, the young deacon (Semmassan) was grazing the cattle of the priest when he had to enter the forest in search of a strayed cow. Inside the jungle he was caught by Mala Arayas, a cannibalistic tribe. They took him to their chief who took a liking for the intelligent looking boy. He did not kill him. Instead he taught him the magic which the tribe had been practising for long. Thus Paulos semmassan remained with the tribe for twelve years. His heart was always pining for the parish priest and people of Kadamattom. Finally he took courage and requested the chief for permission to leave. The chief allowed him but on condition that he had to manage to escape himself. This was no big deal for the Semmassan. He could do so one night.

II

The Semmassan on his escapade from the caves/forests walked for about 4-5 miles and reached a habitation. Being quite tired and hungry he entered a small house by the roadside.  There was only an old woman there. Semmassan requested that old woman for some rice gruel. She informed him that she had not cooked any rice even the previous day as she had not had any rice. Semmassan insisted that there would at least be some grains left in the corners of her rice box and she brought that out. On the Semmassan’s advice she boiled water and put the rice stuck to the corners and edges of the box. In the pot. When the water boiled there was a full pot of cooked rice. With that they both had a good lunch. After that Semmassan had a siesta before setting out for Kadamattam.

III

While Semmassan was narrating his experiences and escapade to the parish priest, the sacristan rushed in quite shaken and informed them that the church was full of devils, massive and terrifying creatures. He was afraid to go in and toll the bell for the evening prayers. The priest and semmassan then went to the church. Semmassan already had realised that those who had come are the forest dwellers (Mala Arayas) from whose clutches he had escaped. They had come to take him back. Semmassan warned them of dire consequences if they did not return to the forest. They refused. Then he did some gestures and they all fell down unconscious with loud thuds. Since having so many bodies in and around the church was a problem the priest enquired how to get rid of them. Thereupon semmassan did another gesture and they all woke up as if from sleep. This time they agreed without a murmur and went back.

Later Semmassan was ordained as full fledged priest and succeeded his mentor on his death. He came to be known as Kadamattathu Kathanaar, after the place and became famous for his magical powers. People from all over Kerala sought his help often for various matters. He had lots of disciples also. Even a style of magic has come to be known after the priest. Some of the stories recounted by Kottarathil Shankunni are presented in the following paras.

IV

The capital of Travancore in those days was Padmanabhapuram, now in Tamil Nadu. It was deep jungle between Thiruvanathapuram and Padmanbhapuram. However, people were forced to use the forest track for travelling to Padmanbhapuram for want of any good road. Once one Yakshi (vampire) settled down in the forest. Simulating the appearance of a beautiful woman she would wait by the wayside and request those men who happened to pass that way for white lime for her pan. After she gets the lime she would enter into a chat with them and entice them to go with her deep into the forest. Once inside she would kill them, drink their blood and eat them. Only hair and teeth would be left. So people were scared to go that way. She then started catching people from neighbouring villages. The village elders sought the help of kadamattathu Kathanaar. So he went that way one day and sure enough the Yakshi was there. As usual she requested for the white lime. The priest offered the same to her on an iron nail. Although the Yakshi initially hesitated, finally accepted the same.  She became a slave of the priest. When the Yakshi thought that the priest offered lime on the nail, actually the priest reciting some magical words had inserted the nail into her head. Kathanaar then walked back on his way to Kadamattam and the Yakshi followed him like a lamb. After 4-5 days walk they reached the house of an old woman at Kayamkulam. She was an aunt of the Kathanaar. The old woman was really looking for a domestic help. The priest offered to keep the Yakshi who now looked like a good and obedient young woman there as a domestic help and his aunt was very happy to have such a nice girl. After the meals Kathanaar had a siesta. Being a bright a bright afternoon, the old woman was happy to comb and pick lice from the hair of the beautiful girl. She then found the iron nail on her head and took it out. Yakshi immediately got back her powers and became invisible. The old woman got quite scared and reported everything to the priest.

On learning by his magical powers that she was headed for the north the priest also took to that direction. After two days they both reached Mannanam. Just before the priest arriving at the river bank, the boatman had already taken the Yakshi to the other side and dropped her at Parayannarkavu (kavu is a small temple). Since there was no other boat on the Kathanaar’s side of the river, he cut a banana leaf and on that crossed the river. He then caught up with her and took hold of her again. However, on her agreeing to stay there without harming people, the priest allowed her to do so. She later came to be known as Panayanarkavu Yakshi as well as Parumala Yakshi.

V

Another famous magician of the times was Kudamon Potty. He and Kadamttathu kathanaar were friends but at the same time thee was competition between the two. One day Potty invited the priest to visit him. When the priest reached the boat jetty there was no boat. Realising this was a test by Potty, Kathanaar brought a boat from the other side by his magical powers and rode without any boatman. Seeing him coming without any assistance the Potty did not show any surprise. After a sumptuous lunch the priest was to go back. The potty accompanied him to the boat place. There was no boat. The boat in which the  Priest had come was on top of a tree. Potty smiled and looked at the priest. Kathanaar understood the meaning of the smile. He told Potty if he did not get the boat down, the ladies of Potty’s household would come out in whatever dress they were in and would get the boat down. Potty thereupon challenged the priest to do so. Immediately the ladies started emerging from the house. Seeing that Potty apologised and got the boat down. 

VI

Once the Patriarch (Bawa) from Jerusalem  visited Kadamattom. As per practice gifts were presented to the Patriarch which were things available only In Europe. The Patriarch then expressed a wish to have some fresh grapes. Thereupon Kathanaar told him that everything would be available in Kerala and that if you planted a seed within no time it would grow into a fully grown vine and produce lots of grapes. The Patriarch then wanted to see such a miracle. The Kathanaar then planted a grape seed and it instantly sprouted, grew and produced plenty of  bunches of grapes.  The Patriarch enjoyed the grapes greatly. But when he came out for a walk, a person told him that Kathanaar was a magician and hypnotist and that he has got  many books on magic at his house. Thereupon the Patriarch visited Kathanaar’s house. Then the books flew like pigeons and stood in the sky. All efforts by the Bawa and his entourage to bring them down did not succeed.  The Bawa then called the Kathanaar and told him that such magic was not appropriate for Christians and that he should not practice magic. Kathanaar told him that he had never practised any black magic and that all he did was in the public interest with the good intention that his knowledge should be used for the general good of the society. The Patriarch then permitted to him to do what ever he considered good.

The priest is believed to have later passed on to the other world through a well in the church complex of Kadamattom. People would still point out the well and until recently offerings were made at the well.

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